2023 Oct 15
Medicine, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, SYR
Unraveling the Gut-Brain Axis in Multiple Sclerosis: Exploring Dysbiosis, Oxidative Stress, and Therapeutic Insights
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38022314/
Abstract
This comprehensive review delves into the intricate relationship between the gut microbiota and multiple sclerosis (MS), shedding light on the potential therapeutic avenues for this complex autoimmune disease. It emphasizes the multifactorial nature of MS, including genetic, environmental, and gender-related factors. Furthermore, the article highlights the emerging role of gut microbiota in MS pathophysiology, particularly in terms of gut dysbiosis, oxidative stress, and inflammasome activation within the gut-brain axis. This interplay raises intriguing questions about how the gut microbiota influences the onset and progression of MS. Environmental factors, such as diet and pollutants, add further layers of complexity to the connection between gut health and MS risk. This review also discusses promising therapeutic interventions, such as fecal microbiota transplantation, probiotics, dietary adjustments, and gut-derived metabolites that offer potential avenues for managing MS. It underscores the need for ongoing research to fully unravel the complexities of the role of the gut-brain axis in MS. Ultimately, this article provides a comprehensive exploration of the topic, offering hope for novel preventive and therapeutic strategies that could significantly improve the lives of individuals affected by this challenging autoimmune condition.
Focus on the gut-brain axis
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
https://www.eboro.cz
Gut micobiota in stroke and Alzheimer's
Gut Microbiota Linked to Stroke Severity
The composition of the gut microbiota influences the likelihood of severe strokes. A healthy digestive ecology also reduces the risk of AD.
Terry Graedon - April 25, 2024
https://www.peoplespharmacy.com/article ... e-severity
We have been hearing increasingly about connections between the brain and the gut microbiota. Research from the Cleveland Clinic has demonstrated two fascinating links. First, scientists found that the denizens of the digestive tract impact the severity of strokes. The types of microbes in the intestines also affect how much impairment results (Cell Host & Microbe, June 16, 2021). Just recently, they have uncovered a link between gut microbes and the risk for Alzheimer's disease.
What’s the Story on Gut Microbiota?
Certain microbes produce trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) when they metabolize red meat and choline from animal sources. This compound reduces the flexibility of the lining of the blood vessels (Hypertension, July 2020). Moreover, studies in humans show that high levels of TMAO in the blood indicate a higher risk of stroke.
In animal research, intestinal microbes that produce more TMAO made experimental strokes more serious. The researchers adjusted the gut microbiota of the mice with fecal transplants. Higher levels of TMAO were associated with more brain damage and long-lasting functional deficits. In addition, these researchers identified the microbial gene responsible, cutC.
Dietary Changes to Shape the Microbiota:
Shifting the diet to reduce TMAO, especially limiting eggs and meat, also reduced stroke severity in this study. In light of these animal data, the scientists suggest a plant-rich diet to lower TMAO and help protect the brain from strokes.
Another reason to aim for optimal gut microbiota balance also highlights the brain. A recent review found that “dysbiosis”–microbe imbalance–is associated with a higher chance of Alzheimer's disease (Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, May 28, 2021).
How Metabolites Affect the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease:
In a recent study, scientists at the Cleveland Clinic used artificial intelligence tools to sniff out relationships between hundreds of metabolites of gut microbes and specific receptors in the brain (Cell Reports, May 28, 2024). They needed the artificial intelligence to sort out more than a million connections between metabolites produced by gut microbes and sites in the brain known as GPCR.
These G-protein-coupled receptors interact with a particular metabolite called agmatine. This analysis demonstrates that agmatine can help protect against damage associated with Alzheimer disease. The GPCR it activates seems to reduce the buildup of tau, a toxic substance in the brain. We don’t yet know how how people might be able to increase levels of this metabolite if they wished to. Consequently, we’re hoping that the researchers at the Cleveland Clinic will keep looking into this question.
Learn More:
If you would like more information about how to feed your gut microbiota properly, you may wish to listen to our interview on the topic. Drs. Justin and Erica Sonnenburg describe how to care of those important microbes that help keep us healthy. It is Show 1156: How the Microbiota in the Good Gut Takes Care of You.
The composition of the gut microbiota influences the likelihood of severe strokes. A healthy digestive ecology also reduces the risk of AD.
Terry Graedon - April 25, 2024
https://www.peoplespharmacy.com/article ... e-severity
We have been hearing increasingly about connections between the brain and the gut microbiota. Research from the Cleveland Clinic has demonstrated two fascinating links. First, scientists found that the denizens of the digestive tract impact the severity of strokes. The types of microbes in the intestines also affect how much impairment results (Cell Host & Microbe, June 16, 2021). Just recently, they have uncovered a link between gut microbes and the risk for Alzheimer's disease.
What’s the Story on Gut Microbiota?
Certain microbes produce trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) when they metabolize red meat and choline from animal sources. This compound reduces the flexibility of the lining of the blood vessels (Hypertension, July 2020). Moreover, studies in humans show that high levels of TMAO in the blood indicate a higher risk of stroke.
In animal research, intestinal microbes that produce more TMAO made experimental strokes more serious. The researchers adjusted the gut microbiota of the mice with fecal transplants. Higher levels of TMAO were associated with more brain damage and long-lasting functional deficits. In addition, these researchers identified the microbial gene responsible, cutC.
Dietary Changes to Shape the Microbiota:
Shifting the diet to reduce TMAO, especially limiting eggs and meat, also reduced stroke severity in this study. In light of these animal data, the scientists suggest a plant-rich diet to lower TMAO and help protect the brain from strokes.
Another reason to aim for optimal gut microbiota balance also highlights the brain. A recent review found that “dysbiosis”–microbe imbalance–is associated with a higher chance of Alzheimer's disease (Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, May 28, 2021).
How Metabolites Affect the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease:
In a recent study, scientists at the Cleveland Clinic used artificial intelligence tools to sniff out relationships between hundreds of metabolites of gut microbes and specific receptors in the brain (Cell Reports, May 28, 2024). They needed the artificial intelligence to sort out more than a million connections between metabolites produced by gut microbes and sites in the brain known as GPCR.
These G-protein-coupled receptors interact with a particular metabolite called agmatine. This analysis demonstrates that agmatine can help protect against damage associated with Alzheimer disease. The GPCR it activates seems to reduce the buildup of tau, a toxic substance in the brain. We don’t yet know how how people might be able to increase levels of this metabolite if they wished to. Consequently, we’re hoping that the researchers at the Cleveland Clinic will keep looking into this question.
Learn More:
If you would like more information about how to feed your gut microbiota properly, you may wish to listen to our interview on the topic. Drs. Justin and Erica Sonnenburg describe how to care of those important microbes that help keep us healthy. It is Show 1156: How the Microbiota in the Good Gut Takes Care of You.
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
2024 Jul 19
Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Gut Microbiota Composition Is Causally Linked to Multiple Sclerosis: A Mendelian Randomization Analysis
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39065244/
Abstract
Accumulating evidence links the microbial communities inhabiting the gut to the pathophysiological processes underlying multiple sclerosis (MS). However, most studies on the microbiome in MS are correlative in nature, thus being at risk of confounding and reverse causality. Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses allow the estimation of the causal relationship between a risk factor and an outcome of interest using genetic variants as proxies for environmental exposures. Here, we performed a two-sample MR to assess the causality between the gut microbiome and MS. We extracted genetic instruments from summary statistics from three large genome-wide association studies (GWASs) on the gut microbiome (18,340, 8959, and 7738 subjects). The exposure data were derived from the latest GWAS on MS susceptibility (47,429 patients and 68,374 controls). We pinpointed several microbial strains whose abundance is linked with enhanced MS risk (Actinobacteria class, Bifidobacteriaceae family, Lactobacillus genus) or protection (Prevotella spp., Lachnospiranaceae genus, Negativibacillus genus). The largest risk effect was seen for Ruminococcus Torques (OR, 2.89, 95% C.I. 1.67-5, p = 1.51 × 10-4), while Akkermansia municiphila emerged as strongly protective (OR, 0.43, 95% C.I. 0.32-0.57, p = 1.37 × 10-8). Our findings support a causal relationship between the gut microbiome and MS susceptibility, reinforcing the relevance of the microbiome-gut-brain axis in disease etiology, opening wider perspectives on host-environmental interactions for MS prevention.
[Free full text]
Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Gut Microbiota Composition Is Causally Linked to Multiple Sclerosis: A Mendelian Randomization Analysis
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39065244/
Abstract
Accumulating evidence links the microbial communities inhabiting the gut to the pathophysiological processes underlying multiple sclerosis (MS). However, most studies on the microbiome in MS are correlative in nature, thus being at risk of confounding and reverse causality. Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses allow the estimation of the causal relationship between a risk factor and an outcome of interest using genetic variants as proxies for environmental exposures. Here, we performed a two-sample MR to assess the causality between the gut microbiome and MS. We extracted genetic instruments from summary statistics from three large genome-wide association studies (GWASs) on the gut microbiome (18,340, 8959, and 7738 subjects). The exposure data were derived from the latest GWAS on MS susceptibility (47,429 patients and 68,374 controls). We pinpointed several microbial strains whose abundance is linked with enhanced MS risk (Actinobacteria class, Bifidobacteriaceae family, Lactobacillus genus) or protection (Prevotella spp., Lachnospiranaceae genus, Negativibacillus genus). The largest risk effect was seen for Ruminococcus Torques (OR, 2.89, 95% C.I. 1.67-5, p = 1.51 × 10-4), while Akkermansia municiphila emerged as strongly protective (OR, 0.43, 95% C.I. 0.32-0.57, p = 1.37 × 10-8). Our findings support a causal relationship between the gut microbiome and MS susceptibility, reinforcing the relevance of the microbiome-gut-brain axis in disease etiology, opening wider perspectives on host-environmental interactions for MS prevention.
[Free full text]
https://www.eboro.cz
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
2024 Jul 26
Laboratories of Neuroimmunology, Service of Neurology and Neuroscience Research Center, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
Perivascular B cells link intestinal angiogenesis to immunity and to the gut-brain axis during neuroinflammation
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39067313/
.. In conclusion, we propose that altered intestinal vasculature driven by a specialized LYVE-1+ B cell subset promotes angiogenesis and that loss of GVB function is implicated in EAE development and autoimmunity.
[Free full text]
Laboratories of Neuroimmunology, Service of Neurology and Neuroscience Research Center, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
Perivascular B cells link intestinal angiogenesis to immunity and to the gut-brain axis during neuroinflammation
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39067313/
.. In conclusion, we propose that altered intestinal vasculature driven by a specialized LYVE-1+ B cell subset promotes angiogenesis and that loss of GVB function is implicated in EAE development and autoimmunity.
[Free full text]
https://www.eboro.cz
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
Petr75 wrote: ↑Thu Aug 29, 2024 2:14 am 2024 Jul 19
Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Gut Microbiota Composition Is Causally Linked to Multiple Sclerosis: A Mendelian Randomization Analysis
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39065244/
Abstract
Accumulating evidence links the microbial communities inhabiting the gut to the pathophysiological processes underlying multiple sclerosis (MS). However, most studies on the microbiome in MS are correlative in nature, thus being at risk of confounding and reverse causality. Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses allow the estimation of the causal relationship between a risk factor and an outcome of interest using genetic variants as proxies for environmental exposures. Here, we performed a two-sample MR to assess the causality between the gut microbiome and MS. We extracted genetic instruments from summary statistics from three large genome-wide association studies (GWASs) on the gut microbiome (18,340, 8959, and 7738 subjects). The exposure data were derived from the latest GWAS on MS susceptibility (47,429 patients and 68,374 controls). We pinpointed several microbial strains whose abundance is linked with enhanced MS risk (Actinobacteria class, Bifidobacteriaceae family, Lactobacillus genus) or protection (Prevotella spp., Lachnospiranaceae genus, Negativibacillus genus). The largest risk effect was seen for Ruminococcus Torques (OR, 2.89, 95% C.I. 1.67-5, p = 1.51 × 10-4), while Akkermansia municiphila emerged as strongly protective (OR, 0.43, 95% C.I. 0.32-0.57, p = 1.37 × 10-8). Our findings support a causal relationship between the gut microbiome and MS susceptibility, reinforcing the relevance of the microbiome-gut-brain axis in disease etiology, opening wider perspectives on host-environmental interactions for MS prevention.
[Free full text]
Am I wrong or the analysis support that Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus increase MS risk?
In this case almost all the probiotic supplements are inappropriate for MSers!
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
Speaking of gut-brain issues, I am reading 'Ultra-Processed People' by Chris Van Tulliken - a fascinating new book that raises many issues on the harms of chemical additives in so many of our foods. It doesn't get into MS, but it does bring up the strong possibility that additives can really mess up your gut health. Highly recommend the book.
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
Gut bacteria may be key to activate immune cells that trigger MS
Pro-inflammatory immune cells that can target the brain may be activated in a specific region of the intestine by certain gut bacteria before migrating to the brain, according to a new study done in mice.
Researchers say these findings provide a proof of concept for how some immune cells may become activated to trigger the inflammatory attack on the brain and spinal cord that causes multiple sclerosis (MS).
“Our results make an important contribution to better understanding the development of multiple sclerosis and potentially open up new therapy options in the long term,” Naoto Kawakami, PhD, the study’s senior author from the University of Munich Hospital, in Germany, said in a university press release.
The study, “Visualizing the activation of encephalitogenic T cells in the ileal lamina propria by in vivo two-photon imaging,” was published in the journal PNAS.
https://multiplesclerosisnewstoday.com/ ... rigger-ms/
Pro-inflammatory immune cells that can target the brain may be activated in a specific region of the intestine by certain gut bacteria before migrating to the brain, according to a new study done in mice.
Researchers say these findings provide a proof of concept for how some immune cells may become activated to trigger the inflammatory attack on the brain and spinal cord that causes multiple sclerosis (MS).
“Our results make an important contribution to better understanding the development of multiple sclerosis and potentially open up new therapy options in the long term,” Naoto Kawakami, PhD, the study’s senior author from the University of Munich Hospital, in Germany, said in a university press release.
The study, “Visualizing the activation of encephalitogenic T cells in the ileal lamina propria by in vivo two-photon imaging,” was published in the journal PNAS.
https://multiplesclerosisnewstoday.com/ ... rigger-ms/
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
2024 Oct 1
Department of Neurobiology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
The gut microbiota-oligodendrocyte axis: A promising pathway for modulating oligodendrocyte homeostasis and demyelination-associated disorders
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39127317/
Abstract
The bidirectional regulation between the gut microbiota and brain, known as gut-brain axis, has received significant attention. The myelin sheath, produced by oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells, is essential for efficient nervous signal transmission and the maintenance of brain function. Growing evidence shows that both oligodendrogenesis and myelination are modulated by gut microbiota and its metabolites, and when dysbiosis occurs, changes in the microbiota composition and/or associated metabolites may impact developmental myelination and the occurrence of neurodevelopmental disabilities. Although the link between the microbiota and demyelinating disease such as multiple sclerosis has been extensively studied, our knowledge about the role of the microbiota in other myelin-related disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, is limited. Mechanistically, the microbiota-oligodendrocyte axis is primarily mediated by factors such as inflammation, the vagus nerve, endocrine hormones, and microbiota metabolites as evidenced by metagenomics, metabolomics, vagotomy, and morphological and molecular approaches. Treatments targeting this axis include probiotics, prebiotics, microbial metabolites, herbal bioactive compounds, and specific dietary management. In addition to the commonly used approaches, viral vector-mediated tracing and gene manipulation, integrated multiomics and multicenter clinical trials will greatly promote the mechanistic and interventional studies and ultimately, the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies against gut-oligodendrocyte axis-mediated brain impairments. Interestingly, recent findings showed that microbiota dysbiosis can be induced by hippocampal myelin damage and is reversible by myelin-targeted drugs, which provides new insights into understanding how hippocampus-based functional impairment (such as in neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disease) regulates the peripheral homeostasis of microbiota and associated systemic disorders.
Department of Neurobiology, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
The gut microbiota-oligodendrocyte axis: A promising pathway for modulating oligodendrocyte homeostasis and demyelination-associated disorders
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39127317/
Abstract
The bidirectional regulation between the gut microbiota and brain, known as gut-brain axis, has received significant attention. The myelin sheath, produced by oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells, is essential for efficient nervous signal transmission and the maintenance of brain function. Growing evidence shows that both oligodendrogenesis and myelination are modulated by gut microbiota and its metabolites, and when dysbiosis occurs, changes in the microbiota composition and/or associated metabolites may impact developmental myelination and the occurrence of neurodevelopmental disabilities. Although the link between the microbiota and demyelinating disease such as multiple sclerosis has been extensively studied, our knowledge about the role of the microbiota in other myelin-related disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, is limited. Mechanistically, the microbiota-oligodendrocyte axis is primarily mediated by factors such as inflammation, the vagus nerve, endocrine hormones, and microbiota metabolites as evidenced by metagenomics, metabolomics, vagotomy, and morphological and molecular approaches. Treatments targeting this axis include probiotics, prebiotics, microbial metabolites, herbal bioactive compounds, and specific dietary management. In addition to the commonly used approaches, viral vector-mediated tracing and gene manipulation, integrated multiomics and multicenter clinical trials will greatly promote the mechanistic and interventional studies and ultimately, the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies against gut-oligodendrocyte axis-mediated brain impairments. Interestingly, recent findings showed that microbiota dysbiosis can be induced by hippocampal myelin damage and is reversible by myelin-targeted drugs, which provides new insights into understanding how hippocampus-based functional impairment (such as in neurodegenerative Alzheimer's disease) regulates the peripheral homeostasis of microbiota and associated systemic disorders.
https://www.eboro.cz
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
2024 Oct 28
Restoring the Multiple Sclerosis Associated Imbalance of Gut Indole Metabolites Promotes Remyelination and Suppresses Neuroinflammation
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39554063/
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS) the circulating metabolome is dysregulated, with indole lactate (ILA) being one of the most significantly reduced metabolites. We demonstrate that oral supplementation of ILA impacts key MS disease processes in two preclinical models. ILA reduces neuroinflammation by dampening immune cell activation/ infiltration; and promotes remyelination and in vitro oligodendrocyte differentiation through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Supplementation of ILA, a reductive indole metabolite, restores the gut microbiome's oxidative/reductive metabolic balance by lowering circulating indole acetate (IAA), an oxidative indole metabolite, that blocks remyelination and oligodendrocyte maturation. The ILA-induced reduction in circulating IAA is linked to changes in IAA-producing gut microbiota taxa and pathways that are also dysregulated in MS. Notably, a lower ILA:IAA ratio correlates with worse MS outcomes. Overall, these findings identify ILA as a new potential anti-inflammatory remyelinating agent and provide novel insights into the role of gut dysbiosis-related metabolic alterations in MS progression.
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https://communities.springernature.com/ ... t-microbes
Restoring the Multiple Sclerosis Associated Imbalance of Gut Indole Metabolites Promotes Remyelination and Suppresses Neuroinflammation
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39554063/
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS) the circulating metabolome is dysregulated, with indole lactate (ILA) being one of the most significantly reduced metabolites. We demonstrate that oral supplementation of ILA impacts key MS disease processes in two preclinical models. ILA reduces neuroinflammation by dampening immune cell activation/ infiltration; and promotes remyelination and in vitro oligodendrocyte differentiation through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Supplementation of ILA, a reductive indole metabolite, restores the gut microbiome's oxidative/reductive metabolic balance by lowering circulating indole acetate (IAA), an oxidative indole metabolite, that blocks remyelination and oligodendrocyte maturation. The ILA-induced reduction in circulating IAA is linked to changes in IAA-producing gut microbiota taxa and pathways that are also dysregulated in MS. Notably, a lower ILA:IAA ratio correlates with worse MS outcomes. Overall, these findings identify ILA as a new potential anti-inflammatory remyelinating agent and provide novel insights into the role of gut dysbiosis-related metabolic alterations in MS progression.
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https://communities.springernature.com/ ... t-microbes
https://www.eboro.cz
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
That's why a good probiotic containing Lactobacillus Reuteri and Bifidobacterium Longum taken with Tryptophan is necessary in MS, they both increase ILA production!
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
2025 Mar 11
Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City
Specific microbial ratio in the gut microbiome is associated with multiple sclerosis
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40030030/
..Utilizing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS, we identified a lower gut Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio as a hallmark of the disease. BW-administered mice also showed a lower Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio pre-EAE induction which correlated with increased disease severity post-EAE induction. The importance of the Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio at the species level, lower Bifidobacterium adolescentis to Akkermansia muciniphila (BA:AM), was validated in our MS cohort and a large International Multiple Sclerosis Microbiome Study.
Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City
Specific microbial ratio in the gut microbiome is associated with multiple sclerosis
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40030030/
..Utilizing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS, we identified a lower gut Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio as a hallmark of the disease. BW-administered mice also showed a lower Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio pre-EAE induction which correlated with increased disease severity post-EAE induction. The importance of the Bifidobacterium to Akkermansia ratio at the species level, lower Bifidobacterium adolescentis to Akkermansia muciniphila (BA:AM), was validated in our MS cohort and a large International Multiple Sclerosis Microbiome Study.
https://www.eboro.cz
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
The antibiotic Vancomycin reduces inflammation through gut brain axis:
https://health.mountsinai.org/blog/pion ... -sclerosis
https://health.mountsinai.org/blog/pion ... -sclerosis
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
Interesting info - and thanks DIM I was wondering the same about probiotics too!
Thanks all for these - it is an emerging science that I hope hurries up!
Thanks all for these - it is an emerging science that I hope hurries up!
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
The article cited by DIM discusses the work lead by Stephanie K. Tankou. Many of her papers are available through PubMed. In 2018 she published a study that looked at modifying the gut microbiome with probiotics. She found that the probiotic decreased inflammatory gene markers in MS patients. The full article is available.
A probiotic modulates the microbiome and immunity in multiple sclerosis
Ann Neurol. 2018 Jun;83(6):1147-1161.
The study used the probiotic Visbiome at a dosage of 3.6 trillion CFUs/day. That's 4 sachets of 900 billion CFUs/day. At a cost of $186.95 for 30 sachets, that's a monthly cost of ~ $750/month. An FMT would be less expensive.
Re: Focus on the gut-brain axis
Probiotics as Potential Treatments for Neurodegenerative Diseases: a Review of the Evidence from in vivo to Clinical Trial
Free full text.
https://www.biomolther.org/journal/view ... r.2024.215
Free full text.
https://www.biomolther.org/journal/view ... r.2024.215